Aino, Ainu -- The Aino, who call themselves Ainu "men" are the last remnants of the aboriginal race of Japan. Japanese history calls them Ebisu "barbarians." Gradually driven back by the invaders from the southwest, they were not brought under complete subjection before the 18th century. Nearly all reside in the northern island of Ezo.

ama -- A Buddhist nun. The ama, also called bikuni, were bound to celibacy, and lived together in nunneries called ama-dera.

Bakufu (Lit.: government of the tent) -- Name first given to the Shogunal government organized in Kamakura by Yoritomo in 1190. It was thus denominated because the former Shogun, in their expeditions, had no fixed residence and administered from their camp.

bozu, bonze - A Buddhist monk or friar. Bonzes were formerly bound to celibacy and to abstain from fleshmeat. Shinran-shonin, the founder of Shin or Ikko sect (1224), was the first that dispensed his disciples from this obligation.

bugyo -- The name formerly given to the chief of an administration. Thus, the machi-bugyo had charge of the city affairs; the kanjo-bugyo, of the finances; the jisha-bugyo, of the temples, etc.

buké -- The military class, the samurai.

Buké-shohatto -- A code promulgated by Ieyasu, containing in 13 chapters the laws to be observed by the daimyo and the samurai.

Bun'ei no Eki -- This is the name given to the war resulting from the first expedition of the Mongols to Japan (1274). The invaders, after having ravaged Tsushima and Iki, were repulsed from Kyushu, their general was killed, and a tempest dispersed their fleet.

Bunroku no kenchi -- Hideyoshi had a register made of all the provinces from 1589-1595. New measures were used for that survey (1 tan = 300 tsubo, 1 cho = 10 tan). From that time the revenues were no more appraised in money but koku of rice. This reform was called Bunroku no kenchi, or Tensho no koku-naoshi.

bushi -- Samurai, warrior, soldier; military class.

Bushido (Lit. the way of the samurai) -- This term is applied to the principles of loyalty and honor which were always to be followed by the samurai. Bushido borrowed stoic endurance, scorn of danger and death from Buddhism; religious worship of country and sovereign from Shintoism; a certain literary and artistic culture, as well as the social moral of the go-rin "five relations," from Confucianism. This amalgam was to form the code of the perfect knight. It may be summed up in three words: the samurai is a man of few words; he does not serve two masters; for duty he sheds his blood, "like the cherry-tree drops its flowers." Such was to be the ideal samurai.

chunagon -- Counselors at the Court, ranking after the dainagon. Their number was not always the same: at the end of the 12th century there were as many as ten.

daikan -- Official who, under the Hojo and Ashikaga, governed the great fiefs in the absence of the titulars (kokushi, shugo), then mostly at the capital.

    Under the Tokugawa, the title was given to the administrators of the domains of the Shogun.

daimyo (Lit: great name) -- A noble, a lord in feudal times. The possessors of great domains were first called myoden; then by and by the term daimyo prevailed. Daimyo were classified into kokushu, governors of one or several provinces; ryoshu, governors of a smaller territory; and joshu, commanders of a castle. Before Ieyasu, there were 18 kokushu, 32 ryoshu, and 212 joshu. From the time of Ieyasu, all those whose revenues were above 10,000 koku of rice were daimyo. He divided them into two classes: the fudai-daimyo, numbering 176, who had sided with him before the campaign of Sekigahara (1600), and the tozama-daimyo, numbering 86, who had submitted to his authority only after been defeated.

dainagon -- Counselors of the Imperial Court. The Taiho Code (702) created four dainagon. In 828 Jun'a-tenno added some gon-dainagon "vice great-counselors." Towards the end of the 12th century the number of dainagon was raised to eight. At the beginning, they were called oimono-mosu-tsukasa.

Dan-no-ura -- A bay in Nagato, near Shimonoseki, where in 1185 the celebrated naval battle was fought that consummated the ruin of the Taira and the triumph of the Minamoto. The latter's victory was principally due to the bravery of Yoshitsuné, who, among other feats, in one bound, leaped over eight (?) hasso-tobi "boats" to reach an enemy. The ex-Emperor Antoku, 7 years old, and his grandmother Nii-no-ama, the widow of Kiyomori, perished in the sea with a great number of their partisans.

Ebisu (barbarians) -- A name given to the aborigines in the east and north of Japan. Those that lived in the most remote provinces were called Ara-Ebisu, Tsugaru-Ebisu. The Aino are their descendants.

eboshi-na -- At the time of the genbuku, a kinsman or a friend was chosen as eboshi-oya "sponsor" who putting the eboshi (a kind of hat) on the head of the young man, gave him a name: it was the eboshi-na, or kammei.

Edo Jidai -- The period of the Tokugawa Shogunate in Edo, from 1603 till 1867; it is also called Tokugawa Jidai.

Eikyo no Ran -- A civil war which arose in Kanto when the kanryo Mochiuji, irritated at not having been made Shogun, refused obedience to the elected Shogun Yoshinori, commenced war against Uesugi Norizané and was finally condemned to commit harakiri (1439).

eta -- An inferior class of ancient society, a sort of pariah to whom those trades were reserved which were considered impure, such as those of flayers, tanners, curriers, etc.

    It is said that the eta were descendants of ancient Korean prisoners or shipwrecked people that settled in Japan.

    The eta in Edo had Danzaémon for their chief, who gradually became very rich.

fudai -- A hereditary vassal or retainer. Ieyasu gave the title of fudai-daimyo to those who had embraced his party before the campaign of Sekigahara (1600); they numbered 176. All important functions were reserved for them.

fushin-bugyo -- An office created in 1652 and entrusted to two officials whose functions were to superintend the reparations of the walls, moats, etc., of the Edo castle as well as other undertakings of the Bakufu in the town.

genbuku, genpuku -- A ceremony during which a minor is declared to be of age. For the Emperor, since the reign of Seiwa (864), it consisted in the receiving of a collar. The sons of kugé had their headdress arranged according to the Court fashion and received the kanmuri (the black hat seen on portraits). Among the officials, the young man changed the name he bore in childhood and received the eboshi from a relation or a patron, called eboshi-oya or kanmuri-oya. During the Tokugawa period, the genbuku for boys consisted in having the top of the head shaved; and for girls, in having the eyebrows shaved and the teeth blackened.

Genko no Ran -- The civil war during the Genko Era. In 1326, the Kotaishi Kuninaga-shinno having died, the Emperor Go-Daigo wished to replace him by his son Morinaga-shinno, but was prevented by Hojo Takatoki who had Kazuhito-shinno a son of Go-Fushimi, nominated. Go-Daigo appointed Morinaga-shinno chief of the temple Enryaku-ji of the Tendai sect, and with the help of the bonzes, prepared to get rid of the Hojo. It was then that Takatoki marched against Kyoto with a numerous army: the Emperor fled to mount Kasagi, but being taken prisoner, he was confined to the Rokuhara and afterwards exiled to Chiburi island (Oki).

go-kenin -- A name given to the samurai in the service of the Shogun. In the beginning this term applied to high officials such as the shugo and the jito. Under the Tokugawa it was only given to samurai inferior in rank to the hatamoto.

Go-san-nen no Eki -- The Three Years' War (1086-1089). During the Nine Years' War (1053-1062), Kiyowara Takenori had helped Minamoto Yoriyoshi to defeat Abé Yoritoki and his sons, and in return for his services, had been nominated Chinjufu-Shogun. His son Sadahira governed six districts of the province of Mutsu, when Iehira, the latter's brother, aided by his uncle Takehira, revolted against him; soon the war extended over the whole province. Minamoto Yoshiié was sent to support Sadahira. He besieged Iehira and Takehira in the castle of Kanazawa (Dewa). The rebels set fire to the castle and escaped, but were killed in their flight (1089).

Go-Tairo -- The five members of the council of state created by Hideyoshi and who were to assist his son in the government: Tokugawa Ieyasu, Maeda Toshiié, Mori Terumoto, Uesugi Kagekatsu, and Ukita Hideié. They were above the five bugyo and were to form the council of the regency during the minority of Hideyori.

han (Lit.: hedge, palisade) -- A fief or territory governed by a daimyo. The han were established by degrees during the 12th century and regularly organized by Yoritomo. Under the Ashikaga it was not by the will of the Emperor or of the Shogun that the titulars were designated, but by force of arms. Ieyasu Tokugawa renewed the regulation of the ancient Bakufu and raised the number of the han to over 300. They were divided into three classes, according to the importance of their revenue: the dai-han, above 400,000 koku of rice; the chu-han, from 100,000 to 400,000 koku; the sho-han, below 100,000 koku.

harakiri (Chinese: seppuku) -- A manner of suicide peculiar to Japan. It was of two kinds, one obligatory and the other voluntary. The first took place after condemnation to death: daimyo and samurai then had the privilege of opening the abdomen, instead of being beheaded by the executioner. Such is the meaning of the words harakiri or seppuku. This was the case with the 47 ronin of Ako (1702), with the murders of the French sailors at Sakai (1867), etc. The principal motives in committing voluntary harakiri were: the desire of not falling alive into the hands of the enemy after a defeat; to give proof of fidelity by committing suicide on the tomb of a deceased master; to protest against the conduct of a superior, etc. Formerly harakiri was performed in a most brutal manner and at times death came only after hours of suffering. Subsequently the patient made only a slight incision, and at the same time a faithful friend cut off his head with a sword. Obligatory harakiri has been completely expunged from the present legislation, but the voluntary harakiri occurs yet from time to time.

hatamoto (Lit.: at the foot of the standard) -- Formerly the camp of a Shogun, next the samurai that guarded it. Under the Tokugawa, the direct vassals of the Shogun, ranking below the daimyo and above the go-kenin. The class of the hatamoto comprised three degrees: the kodai-yoriai, the yoriai and the kofushin.

Heiji no Ran -- The civil war of the Heiji Period (1159), Fujiwara Nobuyori and Minamoto Yoshitomo revolted against the Taira, but they were vanquished and killed.

heimin -- Commoners. A class of people comprising farmers, artisans, and merchants. Above them were the samurai, and below the eta and hinin.

Hogen no Ran -- The civil war of the Hogen Era (1156). At the death of Emperor Konoé, the ex-Emperor Sutoku expected to see his Shigehito-shinno raised to the throne, but, despite his efforts, Toba-tenno had another of his sons, Shirakawa nominated. Sutoku was supported by the Minamoto and Shirakawa by the Taira who ultimately conquered. Sutoku was exiled to Sanuki, Shigehito was obliged to become bonze and the others were put to death or banished, but the most striking result was the strengthening of the ever increasing authority of Taira Kiyomori.

Ikkoto no Ran (Lit.: the civil war of the adherents of the Ikko sect) -- The 8th successor of Shinran, Rennyo-Shonin (1415-1499) forced to flee from Kyoto, spread the doctrines of the sect in the provinces of Echizen, Kaga, and Noto, where it became prosperous. The bonzes, not content with the domains they received from their adherents, made themselves masters of a great number of others and declared war against the daimyo. The 16th century to the times of Nobunaga was full of these wars, which were felt especially in Echizen, Isé, Settsu, and Mikawa.

Jinshin no Ran -- The civil war that occupied the short reign of the Emperor Kobun and was brought to a close by the triumph of his uncle Temmu. It took its name from the year of the sexagesimal cycle during which it happened (672).

jisha-bugyo -- The official who, under the Kamakura Shogunate, had charge of things concerning the Buddhist and Shintoist priests, the temples and their properties, the ceremonies, etc. This title was created in 1293, and Hojo Tokitsura was the first who received it.

    The function was reestablished by the Tokugawa in 1613. In 1635 three jisha-bugyo were nominated: they performed their office alternately, each during one month.

jito -- Formerly the administrators of the domains of high court officials. This title existed before the Kamakura Shogunate, and those invested with it had charge of collecting the taxes. In 1186, Yoritomo placed the shugo at the head of provinces and the jito at the head of the shoen (domains taken from the jurisdiction of the shugo). After the Shokyu War (1221) bonzes and even women received this title, which became hereditary.

    Under the Ashikaga Shogunate, the domains bestowed on nobles were called ryochi, and their possessors, ryoshu. During the long civil wars of the 15th and 16th centuries, many ryoshu lost their possession, which passed over to samurai vassals of the shugo, and jito were replaced by simple hatamoto; this was continued under the Tokugawa.

jodai -- Anciently the military governor of a castle in the absence of the lord. Under the Tokugawa, the castles of Osaka, Fushimi, etc., belonging to the Bakufu were guarded by a jodai.

junshi -- Formerly, at the death of a great personage, his servants were buried with him: it was the junshi. The Emperor Suinin, on the advice of Nomi no Sukuné, interdicted that practice (2 B.C.), but the custom to commit suicide at the loss of one's master was introduced as a sign of fidelity. In the 16th century, when a general or daimyo died, many vassals put an end to their lives by harakiri. At the death of the Shogun Iemitsu in 1651, five great daimyo committed suicide in order not to survive him. It was only in 1668, that by very severe ordinances, the Shogun Ietsuna succeeded in suppressing that abuse.

Kakitsu no Hen (Lit.: the advent of the Kakitsu Era) -- An expression to designate the assassination of the Shogun Ashikaga Yoshinori by Akamatsu Mitsusuké (1441). Yoshinori hated Mitsusuké and proved it to him in many ways; finally, he wished to despoil him of his domains in order to bestow them on Akamatsu Sadamasa. Mitsusuké, concealing his anger, invited the Shogun to a feast during which he assassinated him; next he put fire to his own house and fled to Harima. There he proclaimed Giun, a bonze and grandson of Ashikaga Tadafuyu, heir of Yoshinori. Meanwhile, the Hosokawa, the Takeda, the Yamana, etc., recognized Yoshikatsu, the son of Yoshinori, and marched against Mitsusuké, who, being besieged in his castle at Shirahata and defeated after a short resistance, killed himself by harakiri.

kami -- The gods and goddesses of Shintoism.

kami -- A title corresponding to that of governor of a province: Settsu no kami, Iga no kami. From the time of the Ashikaga, the title, in most cases, became merely honorific: there were, for instance, several Shinano no kami at the same time, and having no jurisdiction over that province. The Shimazu, daimyo of Kagoshima, however bore the hereditary title of Satsuma no kami; the So, that of Tsushima no kami, etc.

kamon -- A title given to daimyo families related to the Tokugawa. They were: the different branches of the Sanké (Owari, Kii, Mito), of the Sankyo (Shimizu, Tayasu, Hitotsubashi), and of the Matsudaira of Echizen, all descended from the Shogun.

Kanpaku -- From 882 to 1868 the highest dignity at the Imperial Court. First called Azukari-mosu, the Kanpaku was all powerful at Court. He represented the Emperor, and at times even took his place in all important questions. He served as intermediary between the Emperor and the officials.

kanryo -- A title of two high officials in the Ashikaga days: one, Kyoto-kanryo, prime minister of the Shogun, was always taken from the Shiba, Hosokawa, or Hatakeyama families, which were for that reason called the san-kan; the other, Kanto-kanryo, governor of Kanto, was first taken from the younger branch of the Ashikaga, then from the Uesugi, etc.

Kanto (Lit.: east of the barrier) -- A name given first to the region which extended east from the Osaka barrier (Omi), near lake Biwa, and later on to the provinces situated east from the old Hakoné barrier.

karo -- Formerly the intendant of a daimyo. Also called o-karo or go-karo depending on clan tradition or local idiom. During Sankin Kotai, a daimyo had two karo, one in his home han and one in Edo. A karo in charge of a castle was called jodai-karo, and the one in Edo was called Edo-karo.

Kawanakajima -- A district comprised between the two rivers Sai-gawa and Chikuma-gawa, to the northeast of Shinano. Was from 1553 to 1563 the scene of many engagements between Uesugi Kenshin and Takeda Shingen. In the Tokugawa period it was the domain of the Matsudaira daimyo (1603-1619), and the Fukushima (1619-1624).

kerai -- Vassal of a daimyo, or servant attached to a house.

koden -- Formerly rice-fields leased as a reward for services rendered to the country. There were four kinds: taiko, permanent lease; joko, leased for three generations; chuko, for two generations; geko, which passed over to the son, and after his death, reverted to the public domain.

koké (Lit.: the high families) -- A title given in the Tokugawa days to some great dispossessed daimyo: Takeda, Yokosé, Hatakéyama, Yura, Imagawa, Oda, Otomo, Osawa, Kira, etc. They had neither castle nor domains and received from the Bakufu a pension of less than 1,000 koku. But certain privileged missions were reserved to them: they carried the Shogun's messages to the Imperial Palace; they treated the Imperial envoys at Edo; they represented the Shogun at certain ceremonies of Nikko, etc. They also regulated the ceremonies to be observed in the Shogun's palace. They were instituted in 1608, and in 1845 their number was 26.

   Below the koké, about ten families bore the title of omoté-koké.

koku -- Measure of capacity, equal to 180.4 liters, or 5.1 bushels, the amount of rice needed to feed one person for one year. It was in koku of rice that from the 16th century onwards the revenues of daimyo  and salaries of officials were estimated. In the Tokugawa days, a revenue of 10,000 koku at least, was necessary to entitle one to the rank of daimyo. The value of the koku has naturally undergone variations. In 1787, for instance, it was 5.5 ryo, so that the revenue of a domain of 30,000 koku was 165,000 ryo.

kokudaka (Lit.: the amount of koku) -- Until the close of the 16th century, the revenues of the daimyo, and the salaries of officials were valued in kan (kandaka), a coin equal to 1/10 of a ryo. Hideyoshi substituted the valuation in koku of rice. From 1589 to 1596, a new survey was made of the whole Empire (see Bunroku no kenchi). Until then, 360 bu made 1 tan, 10 tan made 1 cho; thenceforth, 30 bu made 1 sé, 300 bu or tsubo made 1 tan, 3,000 bu made 1 cho. Thus the old tan was equaled to 1 tan and 2 sé of the new system, and 1 cho made 1 cho 2 tan. It was with these new measures that the area of the domains and their revenues were estimated. This modification was termed Bunroku no kenchi or Tensho no koku-naoshi.

kugé -- Nobles of the Imperial Court. Most of them belonged to the Fujiwara, Sugawara, Taira, Minamoto, Kiyowara, Abé, Urabé, etc. This nobility was distinct from the military nobility (daimyo), over which it had precedence at Court.

Kyoto daikan -- In the Tokugawa days, an official commissioned to administer the five provinces of Kinai. The charge was first filled by the machi-bugyo; in 1680 it became special office under the authority of the Shoshidai. From the close of the 18th century, it became hereditary in the Kobori family. It was also called Kyoto-gundai.

Kyoto machi-bugyo -- In the Tokugawa days, an official residing at Kyoto and entrusted with the collection of taxes in the five provinces of Kinai and of Omi, Tanba, and Harima. This office was established in 1600 and was filled by an official first called Kyoto-gundai. In 1665 two officials were appointed who received the title of machi-bugyo, and were moreover empowered to judge lawsuits and superintend the temples.

Kyoto Shoshidai -- In the Ashikaga period, the chief of the Samurai-dokoro bore the title of Shoshi. He had himself sometimes replaced by a Shoshidai. The office of Kyoto Shoshidai was created by Nobunaga. In 1600 Ieyasu granted the title to Okudaira Nobumasa, then to Itakura Katsushigé. The duty of the Shoshidai, official representative of the Shogun at Kyoto, was to inspect the Imperial Court, the kugé; to judge lawsuits, etc. He had authority over the bugyo of Kyoto, Fushimi and Nara, over the Kyoto-daikan, over the officials of the Nijo (Shogun's palace at Kyoto), etc. Every five years he had to repair to Edo to render an account of his administration to the Shogun. A former Osaka-jodai or a Waka-doshiyori was generally selected for the office of Shoshidai. He received annually 10,000 koku and had under him 50 yoriki and 100 doshin.

machi-bugyo -- Under the Tokugawa, mayors of governors of the cities of Edo, Kyoto, Osaka, and Sunpu. From the year 1719 there were in the city of Edo two such governors who exercised their power by turns. They received 3,000 koku, and had under their command 25 yoriki and 128 doshin.

mokudai -- From the beginning of the 12th century it became customary for the governors of princes (kokushi) to remain in Kyoto, whilst an official named mokudai or rusu-shoku replaced them in their provinces.

Monchujo -- High Court of Justice established at Kamakura in 1184 by Yoritomo: Miyoshi Yasunobu was its 1st president. Installed first in the palace of the future Shogun, it was in 1199 transferred outside the city. It was the supreme court for all civil cases.

    It continued in existence under the Ashikaga Shogun, the charge of shitsuji "president" being controlled in turn by the members of the Ota and Machino families.

Muromachi Jidai -- The period of the Shogunate of the Ashikaga, beginning in 1392, date of the fusion of the two dynasties of the North and of the South, and lasting till 1490, accession of the Shogun Yoshitané.

musha-shugyo -- At the time of the prosperity of the Bushido, a great number of fencing schools were established, whose graduates spread over the provinces to place their learning at the service of the daimyo: they were called musha-shugyo.

myoden -- In the Middle Ages, when a person had cleared some waste land in order to change it into rice fields, he became the proprietor thereof, and to distinguish these lands from koden "government rice-fields," they received a special name and were designated by the general term of of myoden. Their possessor was called myoju: if his domains were considerable, he was a daimyo; if not, he was only shomyo. At the time of the feudal system, these terms daimyo and shomyo were reserved to the families of the military class according to the extent of their fiefs.

nengo -- Era, period of years.

    During the first 10 centuries of their history, the Japanese reckoned their years either from the enthronement of Jimmu-tenno (660 B.C.), or after the sexagesimal cycle, or again from the commencement of each reign. Kotoku-tenno borrowed from China the custom of giving a name to the years, and decided that the 1st year of his reign should be the 1st of the Taika Era (645). Six years after, the Emperor, having received the present of a white pheasant from the province of Nagato, concluded that this event merited to be handed down to history and changed the name of the era to that of Hakuchi "White Pheasant": this was the 1st kaigan "change of era." Kotoku died in the 5th year of Hakuchi (654), and his two immediate successors, Saimei and Tenchi, suppressed the nengo. Temmu re-established them in 672, and since then the custom was followed without interruption: the accession of an Emperor to the throne, an important event, happy or unhappy, brought about a change in the era. In the reign of Murakami-tenno (947-967) the astronomer Abé Seimei introduced the Chinese custom of changing the name of the era in the 1st (ki-no-é no né) and the 57th (ka-no-to no tori) year of the cycle. The reigns which counted the greatest number of nengo are those of Go-Daigo (1319-1338) and of Go-Hanazono (1429-1465), which each had eight. From the Taika Era (645) to the Imperial Restoration (1868) there have been 229 nengo.

Onin no Ran -- Civil war that broke out in the Onin Era.

    The Shogun Toshimasa, having no children, adopted his brother Yoshimi, and gave him as tutor (hosa) Hosokawa Katsumoto (1464). But the following year, a son, Yoshihisa, was born to him, upon which he intended to deprive his brother of his rights to the succession. Meanwhile, Hatakeyama Mochikuni, after having adopted his nephew Masanaga, also had a son and, and dismissed his adopted son. Similar difficulties arose in the Shiba family, where two rivals, Yoshitoshi and Yoshikado disputed the inheritance of Yoshitaké ( -1452). The malcontents appealed to the great daimyo and two parties were formed, headed by Hosokawa Katsumoto and Yamana Mochitoyo. It was not long before war broke out, which continued without decisive advantage for either side, during 11 years (1467-1477). Kyoto and its environs were laid waste and the struggle was ended only by the exhaustion of both parties.

Osaka-jodai -- Representative of the Shogun in Osaka Castle. The first who filled this charge was Naito Masanobu (1619). He was commissioned to maintain the fortifications in good condition, to settle lawsuits among the inhabitants of the city and the neighboring villages, to control the acts of the machi-bugyo, etc. It was one of the highest functions of the Shogunate and was generally assigned to the Sosha-ban or Jisha-bugyo and at the end of his term, the jodai became Kyoto-shoshidai or roju. For some years (1652-1662) there existed at the same time six titulars who served in turns, but after 1662 the custom prevailed of appointing a single titular. The Osaka-jodai, besides the revenues of his territory, received every year 10,000 koku.

Osaka-machi-bugyo -- A title created in 1617 and assigned to two officials commissioned to administer, in the name of the Shogun, the city of Osaka and its environs. One was posted in the east of the city, the other in the west.

roju, rochu -- In the Tokugawa days, members of the Shogun's council.

    This title, corresponding to the Rensho of Kamakura, the Kanryo of Kyoto, was assigned to five officials chosen among daimyo having a revenue of at least 25,000 koku. The Osaki-jodai, the Kyoto-shoshidai, generally became roju at the end of their term; others were taken from among the Soba-yonin, the wakadoshiyori, the Soshaban, etc. The roju performed their duties in turn, each one serving a month. The hall assigned to the roju in the Shogunal palace was called Go-yo-geya, and was at first near that of the Shogun; but from the time when the Tairo Hotta Masatoshi was killed there by Inaba Masayasu (1684), it was transferred elsewhere and the roju and wakadoshiyori had rarely access to the Shogun.

ronin -- A samurai who, freely or on compulsion, left the service of his lord and gained his living by pledging himself to any that needed bold men to make some daring attempt. The famous 47 samurai of Ako became ronin after the death of their lord Asano Naganori; but the Japanese called them gishi (faithful samurai).

ryo -- Gold coin. Value and weight fluctuated widely over time.

samurai -- Military man, warrior, man of arms. This word comes from the verb samurau, or better saburau, which signifies: to be on one's guard, to guard; it applied especially to the soldiers who were on guard at the Imperial Palace. The samurai received a pension from their daimyo, and had the privilege of wearing two swords. They intermarried in their own caste and the privilege of samurai was transmitted to all the children, although the heir alone received a pension.

Sankan Seibatsu -- The expedition led by Empress Jingo for the purpose of subjugating Korea (200). The Korean annals do not mention the fact.

Sanké -- The three branches of the Tokugawa family descended from the three last sons of Ieyasu: Yoshinao, who became daimyo of Nagoya (Owari); Yorinobu, daimyo of Wakayama (Kii), and Yorifusa, daimyo of Mito (Hitachi). They were usually called the families of Owari, Kii, and Mito. When a Shogun died without an heir, his successor could be chosen from these families only. Three times the Kii branch and once the Mito branch benefitted by this privilege.

Sankin Kotai -- Law enacted by the Tokugawa Shogun which obliged all the daimyo to reside alternately in their domains and in Edo, and to leave their wife and children as hostages in that city. The time of residence was no strictly determined but most of the daimyo remained one year at Edo and one year in their domains. Those of the Kanto province changed their residence every 6 months. This law enacted in 1634 by the Shogun Iemitsu, was abrogated in 1862.

Sankyo -- The three branches of the Tokugawa family: Tayasu, Hitotsubashi, and Shimizu. The 1st was established by Munetaké ( -1769), son of the Shogun Yoshimuné; the 2nd, by Munetada (1721-1764), brother of the above; the 3rd, by Shigeyoshi (1745-1795), son of the Shogun Ieshigé.

    They did not possess castles, but resided at Edo and had their domains superintended by a daikan.

Seiwa-Genji -- Patronymic of the families descended from Sadazumi-shinno (874-916), son of Emperor Seiwa, and which received the name of Minamoto.

Sekigahara -- Village of Mino, thus called, because it was situated in the plain near the ancient seki "gate" of Fuwa. It was also called Fuwa-no, Aonohara. At that place, Oct. 21, 1600, Ieyasu gained a decisive victory over Hideyori's party, which was commanded by Ishida Kazushigé. This battle, which raised the Tokugawa to supreme power, is the most important event of Japanese history. Ieyasu was at the head of 80,000 men; his opponents had 130,000 and left 30,000 dead on the battlefield.

Sengoku Jidai -- Period from 1490 to 1600, during which Japan was completely involved in civil war.

seppuku -- See harakiri.

Shikken -- First minister of the Shogun of Kamakura. This title had its equivalent in the sessho and the Kanpaku of Kyoto. In 1203, Yoriié, having handed over the shogunate to his brother, then only 11 years old, their maternal grandfather Hojo Tokimasa took upon himself the direction of affairs and received the title of Shikken, which he transmitted two years later to his son Yoshitoki. In 1213, after the defeat of Wada Yoshimori, Yoshitoki assumed the title of samurai-dokoro-betto, and, as he was already mandokoro-betto, he then held both the civil (bun) and the military (bu) authority, which his descendants inherited and exercised till 1333.

shitsuji -- Under the Shogunate of Kamakura, vice-president of the Mandokoro. The president had the title of Betto, reserved to the Shikken Hojo. The shitsuji acted as first minister of the Shikken.

    Under the Ashikaga, Takauji named two shitsuji at Kyoto, Ko Moronao and Uesugi Tomosada. In 1362 the title of shitsuji, then borne by Shiba Yoshimasa was changed to Kanryo.

    At Kamakura, the son of Takauji, Yoshiakira, having assumed the title of Kanto-kanryo, Uesugi Noriaki received that of shitsuji, which was however changed to kanryo, when the Ashikaga of Kamakura were designated, as well as those of Kyoto, by the title of kubo.

    The vice-president of the Monchujo also had the title of shitsuji, which, under the Kamakura and the Kyoto Shogun, was hereditary in the Ota and the Machino families.

shobanshu -- Officials of high rank who, under the Ashikaga Shogun, accompanied the Shogun in his travels. In 1421 Yoshimitsu, being invited to visit Isé Sadatsuné, for the first time gave this title to Hatakaeyama Mitsuié. The members of the Shiba, Hosokawa and Hatakeyama families, before being named kanryo, and also the daimyo skilful in military exercises, were chosen as shobanshu.

shoen -- Formerly, domains with which the Emperor rewarded princes or high officials. The possessors of shoen, called shoji, at first had only the product of these lands, the land itself remaining Imperial property; but they were exempt from taxes and not subject to provincial government. Their number gradually increased; some lords, on their own authority, gave the name of shoen to their domains, dispensed justice, levied heavy taxes, etc. In the 11th century, half of the country was thus converted into shoen domains. Vainly did some Emperors enact laws against this state of affairs. Yoritomo, however, succeeded in notably diminishing their number and imposed on all an annual taxation of 5 sho (9 litres) of rice per tan (10 acres).

    The shoji were often absent from their domains and had them administered by a jito.

Shogun (general), Sei-i-taishogun (commander-in-chief against the barbarians) -- Such was the title under which the Minamoto (1192-1219), the Fujiwara (1220-1244), some Imperial princes (1245-1334), the Ashikaga (1336-1573), and lastly the Tokugawa (1603-1868), exercised unlimited power to which the Emperors themselves were obliged to yield. This state of affairs caused Europeans for a long time to believe that Japan was governed by two Emperors, one retired in his palace of Kyoto, the descendant of the gods, busied only with religious matters; the other, the acting sovereign, governing and administering as he pleased. This notion though false was a correct estimate of the situation. The investiture of the Shogun was at all times received from the Emperor, who seems never to have had either the desire or the power to refuse it. From the time of Yoritomo, the title of Shogun was reserved for the descendants of the Minamoto (Seiwa-Genji), and for this reason, Nobunaga, descendant of the Taira, and Hideyoshi who was of low extraction, never bore that title.

shoji -- Formerly a title given to the possessors of the shoen.

Shokyu no Ran -- The civil war of the Shokyu Era.

    After the death of Sanetomo, last of the Minamoto Shogun (1219), Fujiwara Yoshitsuné, then 2 years old, was chosen by the Hojo to succeed him, and Yoshitoki continued to govern. A little later (1221), Emperor Juntoku abdicated in favor of his son. There then were three ex-Emperors: Go-Toba (Ichi-in), Tsuchimikado (Chu-in), and Juntoku (Shin-in). Go-Toba and Juntoku resolved to get rid of the Hojo, and an order was sent to all the provinces to levy troops and march against them. On hearing this, Hojo Yoshitoki, after taking the advice of his sister Masako and Oé Hiromoto, sent a large army against Kyoto under the command of his sons Yasutoki and Tomotoki and his brother Tokufusa. The several thousands of samurai who had answered the call of the Emperor were defeated at Uji and at Seta: the Kamakura army, victorious, entered Kanto, and Yoshitoki took his revenge. The young Emperor Chukyo was deposed, his father Juntoku exiled to Sado and Go-Toba to Oki. Although Tsuchimikado had kept himself secluded, he was notwithstanding exiled to Shikoku. Thus ended the Shokyu War. The Hojo were thus to remain all powerful during one more century.

shomyo -- Formerly, especially under the Ashikaga, lord of a small domain, as opposed to daimyo.

shugo, shugo-shoku -- In 1185, on the advice of Oé Hiromoto, Yoritomo created an official in the provinces formerly belonging to the Taira, and not depending directly on him, to assist the kokushi "governor": he named him shugo or shugo-shoku. In the shoen, they were called jito. At the head of the Kanto provinces, which depended directly upon him, he placed kuni-bugyo.

    The shoku, who at first were called sotsuibushi, had to secure the payment of the taxes, render justice, levy troops in case of war, etc. Gradually they extended their power over the shoen, and the jito were reduced to a secondary position. Under the Ashikaga, the shugo became still more powerful, some governing several provinces, for in 1440, the Yamana lorded it over 11 provinces. After the Onin War (1469), they began to replace the kokushi and formed the class of daimyo, whilst the jito and the gokenin were called shomyo.

shugo-dai, shugo-daikan -- Official who replaced the shugo when absent from his fief. As the case occurred frequently, the shugo-dai increased in importance and at times even overthrew the shugo.

Taiko -- Title taken by a Kanpaku, when he was succeeded in office by his son: if he transmitted it to another, he had no claim that title. If, when being succeeded by his son, he shaved his head, and became bonze, he was called Zenko. Although this title occurs several times in history, it is especially given to Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who took it when the office of Kanpaku passed to his adopted son Hidetsugu (1592).

Tairo -- Under the Tokugawa, the first minister of the Shogun. He was also called Genro or O-toshiyori. The first to receive this title were Doi Toshikatsu and Sakai Tadakatsu (1638). Later on the office was given to one official usually chosen from the Sakai, Ii, and Hotta families. A tozama-daimyo was never raised to the dignity of Tairo. From the time of Ienobu (1709) till that of Ieshige (1760), this office was vacant. One of the best known Tairo is the famous Ii Kamon no kami, signer of the first treaty with the foreign powers. He was assassinated in 1860.

Tenkei no Ran -- The civil war brought about by the rebellion of Taira Masakado during the Tenkei Era.

tozama-daimyo -- Formerly this term was applied to the daimyo who were not vassals of the Shogun. Ieyasu gave that name to the 86 daimyo who submitted to him only after the Battle of Sekigahara (1600), whilst he called those who had sided with him from the beginning of the campaign, fudai-daimyo: these numbered 176.

    The most powerful among the tozama-daimyo were: Maeda (Kaga), Daté (Sendai), Shimazu (Satsuma), Mori (Choshu). They took rank immediately after the Sanké; were the guests of the Shogun when they came to Edo for their annual visit, and were received by a special joshi "envoy" sent as far as Shinagawa or Senju.

waka-doshiyori -- Under the Tokugawa, members of the Council of the Shogun, below the roju. Their functions were to supervise officials and the hatamoto. In 1633 the Shogun Iemitsu created the following six: Matsudaira Nobutsuna, Miura Masatsugu, Abé Tadaoki, Ota Sukemuné, Hotta Masamori, and Abé Shigetsugu. This number was always retained.

yoriki-doshin -- Under the Tokugawa, minor officials subject to a bugyo. These offices were hereditary. The yoriki were divided into two classes: go-fudai-gumi and o-kakaé-gumi. The doshin belonged to the kakaé-gumi.

Sources

• Papinot

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